The Negative Effect Of Clubbing On The Body

The Negative Effect Of Clubbing On The Body The levels of clubbing and video gaming have increased in the twenty first century; however the people that go out dont know realise that they are falling victim to the unhidden dangers of clubbing. Epilepsy and heart attacks are conditions that have been associated with stress, bad nutrition and other major triggers of the conditions without realising that even the so-called fun places and gadgets we spend time on can be a danger to our lives, or the lives of an epileptic. Commonly used strobe lights in the clubs can lead to photo sensitive epilepsy which isnt just there to enhance the hype of the clubbing, but are a serious danger. The rhyme of the music in the night clubs can also lead to severe consequences such as cardiac arrest. Therefore in this assignment we will be trying to make aware to all people the dangers of the fun side of our lives, mostly to the young people who have adapted to the twenty first century style of living. Negative effects of music on the heart: Some types of music can cause the brain to lose its symmetry between its right and left halves, or hemispheres. It can likewise generate diminished work capabilities in adults. The specific type of beat may be at fault. The types of music that cause these effects on the brain are mostly aggressive forms of music such as heavy rock or rap. The anapestic beat causes the switching of the brain, that is, the symmetry that exists between the two hemispheres of the brain is destroyed. This strains the heart and causes a stress to the body, weakening the muscles. (Heather, S, 2006, pg1) The anapaestic beat, which is the type of rhythm found in hard rock music, is known to be the exact opposite rhythm to that of our heart. Naturally this interrupts the natural rhythm of the heart, and disturbs normal heart rate and results in a strain or stress to the body. (Heather, S, 2006, pg1) Loud, fast paced music significantly increases the heart rate and when heart rate increases, cardiac output and resultantly blood pressure also go up. Blood pressure is raised by crisp, repeated chords. Both consonant and dissonant chords exert a profound effect on a persons pulse and respiration. (Frederick, W, 2007, pg32) Intense or loud music e.g. rock, electro result in the bodys release of the fight or flight hormones, i.e. epinephrine, norepinephrine, cortisol by the adrenal glands. This is followed by the constriction of the tiny blood vessels and consequently the increase in the blood pressure and heart rate. (Navaro, R, 2009, pg73) the way the body reacts can be likened to the same way it reacts when under stress or strain. Heart rate acceleration is associated with loudness , the tempo and the musical complexity of the music that is, as the tempo increases and the music becomes louder and with the inclusion of several instruments comes the marked and rapid increase in circulatory and cardiac activity. (Kahn A,P, 2009, pg220) The increase in blood pressure due to the strain brought on the body is counteracted by blocking/inhibition of the central sympathetic outflow of the heart and peripheral circulation. Baroreceptors are able to detect the changes in the vessel walls, which occurs due to the changes in the arterial pressure. The regulation occurs sequentially, from the intermediolateral cell column, to the preganglionic neurons, sympathetic ganglia, and to the post ganglionic sympathetic nerves directed to the heart, arterioles, veins and kidneys. This homeostatic process is referred to as the Baroreflex negative feedback loop which is the bodys way to react to increased blood pressure. The final result is a decrease in blood pressure and heart rate. (Fink, 2000, pg241) http://s1.favim.com/orig/26/adidas-party-rave-strobe-lights-Favim.com-227934.jpg http://a0.twimg.com/profile_images/768839063/SoundSystemSpkrWall.jpg (DJ in night club, n.d.) (Picture of a sound system, n.d.) Positive Effect of Music on the Heart: Music can have a positive effect on the body. This however does not include house, club, rave or any music with a fast beat. Classical music can cause the heart rate (pulse) to relax to the beat of the music as the rhythm is slow and calming. Such classical music includes that of the baroque period. As the heart rate becomes more relaxed so does the body, this allows for increased concentration. By having a decreased heart rate a persons blood pressure will decrease too, allowing for enhanced learning abilities. (Anon, 2012) Music doesnt just affect the heart rate, but also the frequency and amplitude of the brain waves. This is measured with an electroencephalogram. As well as effecting the breathing rate and the skins electrical resistance. So depending on the pace of the music depends on how the breathing rate, brain waves and the skins electrical resistance will be affected. Calming music will decrease the breathing rate although the breaths that will be taken will be deep allowing for increased oxygen to be supplied throughout the body. (Anon, 2012) How a heart attack happens/ What is a heart attack: For our hearts to function we need oxygen and nutrients, this ensures that the heart carries on beating. The rhymatic beating of the heart allows nutrients and oxygen to be pumped in and around the body which ensures our survival. When there is a shortage or no oxygen, the heart will not be able to function normally. This is known as a heart attack or a coronary attack. (Anon, 2012) This happens when the coronary arteries which carry the oxygen to the heart become blocked. This blockage can be due to cholesterol, fat and other substances which are known collectively as plaque. Causing the arteries to become thick and hard. This is known as atherosclerosis. (Anon, 2012) This plaque is dangerous in many ways one of them being that the plaque can break in the coronary artery causing a blood clot in this area. This blood clot blocks the coronary artery, cutting off the blood supply to the heart. This is known as an ischemia. During this blockage if any damage or death of any part of the heart muscle has occurred during an ischemia this is known as myocardial infarction (MI). (Anon, 2012) There can also be an obstruction in the artery other than a blockage leading to a heart attack. (Anon, 2012) (With some of the above mentioned heart attacks such as atherosclerosis, there are no symptoms as the body has compensated for the narrowing of the coronary arteries by widening other arteries.) (Anon, 2012) An angina attack can often be confused for a heart attack. An angina pectoris is when the patient feels a sharp pain in his/her chest. This does not cause any damage to the heart muscle whereas a heart attack does. An angina pectoris occurs normally during exercise or emotional pain causing the patients blood pressure to increase beyond normal. (Anon, 2012) Other causes of a heart attack can be a spasm in the coronary artery blocking the blood supply flow towards the heart muscle hindering the oxygen and vital supply of nutrients to the heart. The cause of the spasm is unknown and can occur in an ordinary artery or in one that has a blockage. If the spasm is severe this can lead to a heart attack. (Anon, 2012) Cardiac arrest is when there is an abnormal heart beat. This is slightly different to a heart attack because it is due to the hearts electrical system. This is when the electrical system malfunctions. Cardiac arrest sometimes known as sudden cardiac death SCD is when there is an irregular heartbeat, Arrhymias. Most common is ventricular fibrillation; this is when the lower chambers of the heart stop pumping blood. Death will occur in a few minutes if CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation) or using a defibrillator to restore the normal heart beat. (Anon, 2012) Warning signs of a heart attack: Chest pain/discomfort Discomfort in the upper body regions Dyspnoea shortness of breath Cold sweats Nausea Fatigue light headed Palpitations heart heating fast (Anon, 2012) Risk factors which promote heart disease: Smoking Diet high in saturated fats Elevated cholesterol levels Obesity (Anon, 2012) How is a heart attack treated? Treatment of a heart attack may be both surgical and non-surgical. The type of treatment administered to a heart attack patient depends on the type of heart attack they are suffering from and treatment window (time span) in which treatment may be offered. Because only a few hospitals offer 24 hour percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) procedures, clot-dissolving medication is used to reopen arteries that may be clogged. Such medication may not be used on patients with neurological disorders, pregnant patients, patients who have had major surgery or trauma in the past 6 weeks and patients who had been vomiting blood. (Amy and Elliot, 2006) Angioplasty Should a doctor decide that a patient needs an angioplasty, artery blockages will be observed on an angiogram (an x-ray of the hearts arteries) in a catheterization laboratory. A PCI is then performed by a cardiologist, in which the patient will remain awake throughout the whole procedure. During this procedure the skin is numbed, and a needle is inserted through the skin and a catheter and a soft-tipped guide wire are threaded into the aorta, and then into the heart using the needle. The catheter tip is passed through the arteries that transport the blood to the heart. Once the catheter is in place, a dye is injected into the heart vessels to make any blockages visible on x-ray. A tiny balloon on the tip of the catheter is inflated to unblock the artery. After the procedure, a stent is inserted where the blockage was. The stent is will remain permanently in the heart and may in some cases slowly release medication over time which prevents the growth of scar tissue and also prevents the formation of clots on that site. The recovery process may then take place in the coronary care unit which is an intensive care unit, where the patient will be monitored with ECGs, blood tests and routine checkups 24 hours a day. (Anon., 2012) Antiplatelet medication is prescribed to patients with newly inserted stents. This medication is important to prevent clotting in the stents. This medication must be taken by the patient for at least 12 months. If a patient stops taking the medication too soon it may result in a clot that may block the flow of blood through the stent resulting in another heart attack. Medication such as beta-blockers, aspirin and statin may also be prescribed by the cardiologist to prevent future heart attacks. In the event that non-surgical treatment is preferred by the doctor, medication can be administered to the patient. The medication is used to prevent future blood clots, break up existing clots, prevent platelets from gathering and sticking to the plaque, stabilize the plaque, and prevent any blood supply restrictions to tissues in the body. In order to decrease the damage that the heart muscle can undergo it is vital that the medication is administered within 30 minutes from when the heart attack symptoms occurred. (Anon., 2012) Medication used in heart attack treatment includes: aspirin thrombolytic therapy (clot busters) heparin other antiplatelet drugs Should a patient have more than 3 blocked arteries, coronary artery bypass surgery is usually recommended. Coronary artery bypass surgery This type of surgery is used to improve the flow of blood to the heart in people with severe coronary artery disease that puts them in the risk of having a heart attack. During this surgery a blocked coronary artery and a healthy vein or artery are joined together in order to improve the flow of blood and oxygen to the heart. 85% of individuals who undergo this surgery are at a less risk of having future heart attacks, they experience fewer symptoms, and they have a lower chance of dying within 10 years after the surgery. There are different types of coronary artery bypass surgery. (Anon., 2012). These include:- Traditional coronary artery bypass surgery This is the most common type of bypass surgery and is performed when a bypass is needed on at least one major artery. During this procedure, the chest is opened; exposing the heart and medication is used to stop the heart until the end of the procedure. The heart is operated on whilst a heart-lung machine is used to pump blood around the body, not depleting the oxygen supply throughout the whole body. Electric shocks are used to start the heart again after the surgery. (Anon., 2012) Off-pump coronary artery bypass surgery This type of surgery is also open heart surgery and is similar to the traditional coronary artery bypass surgery. The difference is that the heart is not stopped which reduces the recovery time and also reduces the number of complications that may occur during and after surgery.(Anon., 2012) Minimally invasive direct coronary artery bypass surgery This type of surgery is similar to the off-pump bypass surgery, except it is not open heart surgery. It is used to bypass the vessels in anterior of the heart.it isnt commonly used as it is a new procedure and it is used in cases where more than two arteries are going to be bypassed. The procedure itself is one in which small incision are made in-between the ribs on the left hand side of the body to access the vessels. (Anon., 2012) Description: http://topnews.in/usa/files/heart_attack.jpg (Rose, 2008) What is epilepsy? This is a term used to define condition in which an individual has recurring seizures of also known as fits. These occur when there is a disruption in the messages being relayed across the brain between brain cells resulting in a mix up or a complete halt of messages in the brain. These seizures occur when there is too much sudden brain activity. Each individual who has epileptic fits experiences then in a way that is unique to them, this is because there are different types of seizures and the type of seizure experienced depends the positioning of the epileptic activity, how wide and how fast in the brain the epileptic activity spreads. (Anon, 2012) The cause of some of the epileptic syndromes is unknown while for others it may be hereditary. The type of epilepsy syndrome is usually described according to its symptoms or where in the brain it occurs. There are many different types of epilepsy syndromes some of which begin in infancy, while others begin in adulthood. Some stop during adolescence or early adulthood whilst others are chronic. (Anon, 2012) Different types of epilepsy Photosensitive epilepsy In the event that epileptic seizures are caused by flickering lights or flashing lights, it is referred to as photosensitive epilepsy. In this type of epilepsy, natural or artificial lights and checked or striped patterns may also result in the seizures occurring. The seizure occurs during or shortly after the individual has been exposed to the cause. This type of epilepsy usually occurs to individuals between the ages of 7 and 19 and it affects more boys than girls. (Anon,2012) Absence epilepsy This type of epilepsy is usually hereditary and begins from infancy to adolescence. Individuals with this type of epilepsy experience absence seizures that happen repeatedly. During the seizures individuals have reported symptoms such as a jerking arm or rapidly blinking eyes, whilst others have reported no symptoms at all except for feeling out of it. These symptoms have no effect on an individuals intelligence; however, they could affect learning a school or daily activities if they occur. (Anon 2012) Psychomotor epilepsy With this type of epilepsy, during seizures individuals experience strange emotions, sensations and behaviour. Its name is used to describe partial seizures that keep occurring in the temporal lobe of the brain. Occipital lobe epilepsy This type of epilepsy is similar to temporal and frontal lobe epilepsy, however it usually begins with rapid eye blinking, individuals visualizing hallucinations and/other symptoms which have to do with the eyes. (Anon, 2012) Frontal lobe epilepsy This type of epilepsy has many different types of its kind which are described according to where in the frontal lobe they may occur. It describes a reoccurrence of short seizures which may suddenly stop or begin at any moment in time. (Anon, 2012) Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) This type of epilepsy is the most common with partial sezuires.it may cause memory loss and make learning difficult as it causes a structure in the brain called the hippocampus to shrink. This structure is vital for learning and memory. Although the damage which may be caused by temporal lobe seizures may take years to occur, it is advised that it is treated early and as effectively as possible to prevent and further damage that may occur. (Anon, 2012) Juvenile Myoclonic Epilepsy This type of epilepsy is chronic and doesnt always begin in childhood, however once a person has it they have to live with it for the rest of their lives. An example of this type of epilepsy is Ramsay Hunt Syndrome type II which begins in the early adulthood and causes muscle coordination to be reduced, seizures and reduces the abilities to learn, remember, pay attention and solve problems. (Anon, 2012) Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome This type of epilepsy begins in childhood. It has many symptoms which include sudden falls or drop attacks during seizures called atonic seizures. It is very difficult to treat and is also very severe. (Anon, 2012) Strobe lights causing epilepsy. Individual strobes or small groups of strobes have been used in entertainment venues for years. They even became a symbol or sign of night fun, because most of the night clubs use strobe lights and loud music to heat up the fun, without noticing or being aware that this triggered epileptic seizures known as photosensitive epilepsy. Photosensitive epilepsy has been known and studied for many years. Many people are unaware that they are sensitive to flickering lights or to certain kinds of patterns until they have a seizure. They may never go on to develop epilepsy, which is characterized by recurrent spontaneous seizures, though a seizure may be triggered by certain photic conditions. Many individuals who are disturbed by light exposure do not develop seizures but experience other symptoms such as headache, nausea, dizziness and more. Photosensitive epilepsy is more common in children and adolescents, especially those with generalized epilepsy, in particular juvenile myoclonic epileps y. It becomes less frequent with age, with relatively few cases in the mid-twenties. Apparently, there is considerable body of knowledge relative to strobes and photosensitive epilepsy. Standards exist regarding the use of strobes in signalling applications such as for fire alarms. (Anon, 2012) It should be noted that it is not the strobe that is the problem; any light flashing at the noted frequencies may be a problem to photosensitive people. Seizures may be triggered by exposure to television screens (flickering and rolling of pictures), to computer monitors, to certain video games or TV broadcasts containing rapid flashes or alternating patterns of different colours, and to intense strobe lights like visual fire alarms. (Harding, 2008) In the U.S. population stats show that less than 5% of those who suffer from epilepsy are photosensitive. This means that approximately one in 4,000 individuals suffer from this less than 100,000 in the U.S. population. There is high possibility that even in other countries the same stats still stands, but the characteristics of each individuals susceptibility are unique this means there could a great variety on severity of the condition. It is well addressed in articles that the range of 15 to 20 Hz is of greatest concern; however some individuals are susceptible to flashing lights as slow as 5 Hz and some as high as 84 Hz as individuals are susceptible to in different ways. (Anon, 2012) People should check with their doctors if they are concerned about flashing lights triggering seizures. Chances are that the medical records will indicate how you responded to flashing lights during the electroencephalogram (EEG), a test done routinely in most people with epilepsy. During this test, sensors are attached to the patients scalp to monitor the electrical activity of the brain in various conditions, including light stimulation generated by a strobe positioned in front of the eyes. An abnormal response when the patient is exposed to various frequencies of flashing lights indicates the presence of photosensitivity. (Anon, 2012) Ways that would help prevent the triggering of these conditions. Avoid exposure to certain kinds of flashing lights; and Cover one eye and turn away from the direct light source when in the presence of flashing lights. General tips offered by the Epilepsy Foundation Organisation in America to reduce the chances of causing epileptic seizures. (Anon, 2012) Visual Fire Alarm Strobe Lights: In most workplaces and places serving the public, including theatres, restaurants, and recreation areas, are required to have fire alarms, which flash as well as ring so that people who cannot hear or cannot hear well will know that there is an emergency. To reduce the likelihood of the strobe light triggering a seizure, the Epilepsy Foundations professional advisory board recommends that the flash rate be kept to under 2 Hertz with breaks every so often between flashes; and flashing lights should be placed at a distance from each other and set to flash together at the same time to avoid an increase in the number of individual flashes. (Anon, 2012) Television Screens: Watch television in a well-lit room to reduce the contrast between light from the set and light in the room. Reduce the brightness of the screen. Keep as far back from the screen as possible. Use the remote control to change channels on the TV so you wont have to get too close to the set. Avoid watching for long periods of time. Wear polarized sunglasses while viewing television to reduce glare. (Anon, 2012) Videogames: Sit at least 2 feet from the screen in a well-lit room. Reduce the brightness of the screen. Do not let children play videogames if they are tired. Take frequent breaks from the games and look away from the screen every once in a while. Do not close and open eyes while looking at the screen blinking may facilitate seizures in sensitive individuals. Cover one eye while playing; alternating which eye is covered at regular intervals. Turn the game off if strange or unusual feelings or body jerks develop. (Anon, 2012) Computer Monitors: Use a flicker-free monitor (LCD display or flat screen). Use a monitor glare guard. Wear non-glare glasses to reduce glare from the screen. Take frequent breaks from tasks involving the computer. (Anon, 2012) http://blog.eastside.org/wordpress/jamiea/files/2012/02/Lights.jpg (Strobe lights, 2012) What happens during a seizure (Epilepsy) Normally the brain controls the functions of the body, either by interpreting electrical messages from sensory nerves or by generating electrical impulses for transmission down the motor nerves to the muscles. This normal electrical activity can be measured by taking an Electroencephalogram (EEG), using an instrument called an Electroencephalograph. The EEG does not provide a sure diagnose of Epilepsy. (Encyclopaedia of family health) http://www.drugs.com/health-guide/images/205052.jpg(Neurology, 2012) During an Epileptic attack, the electrical impulses recorded by the EEG increases in voltage and frequency, so that what appeared to be a reasonably ordered pattern of electrical activity becomes frenzied. The attack usually begins at one spot and then spreads as the fits develops to involve the whole brain.(Encyclopaedia of family Health) When there are disordered electrical activities over the whole brain, the attack which seldom lasts more than a minute or two may begin with a patient experiencing a strange sensation or an odd unreal smell and a phenomenon called the Dà ©jà   vu. This stage of the attack is known as Aura, followed immediately by the tonic seizure, during which the muscles contract and remain contracted, the patient loses control and falls rigid to the ground. Patient shouts and passes into the Clonic phase, when the arms and legs twitch and the breath is held. In the clonic and tonic phases the sufferer will feel confused and drowsy and may sleep. Paralysis may then develop in one or more limbs and last for an hour or more. (Encyclopaedia of family health) In Children Seizures are called petit mal. The child does not fall down but loses touch with the world for a few seconds, results in confusion and forgetful. If the Seizure attacks the child when they are speaking, he or she will suddenly stop for a couple of seconds then continue as if nothing happened. The child is unaware of the attacks. (Encyclopaedia of family health) What to do if someone has an Epileptic Seizure It is important to know that It is not possible to stop the attack, but helpful to protect the person having such an attack from injury. Here is what to do if someone has an Epileptic Seizure: Ensure that the patient cannot bang his or her limbs against any hard furniture, and keep him or her well away from any fireplace. A child should not be left alone until the attack is over. Do not attempt to push anything into the patients mouth or to force the jaws open. The jaws are powerfully clenched, and it is possible to cause an injury by trying to open them. When the fit is over, turn the patient gently onto one side and loosen his or her clothes on the neck so that there is no difficulty in breathing. If the fit has happened in an unsafe place, get the patient to safety quickly. If someone in the family has a fit for the first time, give the Doctor a careful, detailed account of what happened during the attack and just before it. This will help the Doctor make the correct diagnosis. A child who has a convulsion because of high fever should not be kept warm. Remove blankets and thick clothing, and if temperature rises above 39.40C, sponge the patient all over with tepid water until it comes down to 38.80C. (Encyclopaedia of family health) https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgxG6y5VecbuFHMvdjuoB-0hUxWW6DwUuQZtOR9-GZhcSY0ix9Bryza0Rv6pKMzVjX04Iu5h1qDuBxD1ifrby08fs3EdvrbQ8KzjM4GxBc59YQULzl6YO87W_HZ4rW0n6VJGzg4woU4RMo/s1600/epilepsy-recovery.jpg (Medical issues seizures, n.d.) The Treatment of Photosensitive Epilepsy As is the case with all seizures, photosensitive seizures are usually treated with drugs known as anticonvulsants. Anticonvulsants refer to a group of diverse pharmaceutical products which are used in both the prevention and the treatment of epilepsy. In photosensitive epilepsy, Sodium Valproate is the recommended treatment. Sodium Valproate works to prevent an excess of electrical activity in the brain, thus calming the brain and preventing the occurrence of fits. Chemicals referred to as neurotransmitters are stored in nerve cells. Their function is to transmit messages between the nerve cells. GABA, is a neurotransmitter that acts to calm the nerves, its function is to maintain a balance of the nerve activity in the brain. Sodium Valproate works to increase the production of the neurotransmitter GABA in the brain and prevent the breakdown of this neurotransmitter, ultimately this results in the stabilising of the electrical nerve activity and achieving the desired therapeutic outc ome, preventing seizures. These drugs cannot completely cure epilepsy but through their use, by strictly following the prescribed drug regimen, epilepsy may be controlled and prevented. (Anon,2008) Although antiepileptic drugs are the most common methods of treatment of epilepsy, but they may not always be effective. Other methods of treatment of epilepsy include: Vagus Nerve Stimulation: The treatment works by sending mild impulses of energy to the brain, via the Vagus nerve via an implanted device (Anon,2007) . This is a treatment used as an option for patients who have tried several anti-epileptic drugs and still have not managed to gain adequate control of their seizures. This treatment is used in conjunction with anti-epileptic drugs. The vagus nerve stimulation does not act as a replacement for the drugs the patient is being administered, it works to aid the drugs thus achieving a better therapeutic response from the patient. Vagus nerve stimulation may also take up to two years to have an effect on a patients seizures, but if the treatment is effective, the patient may be allowed to decrease their anti-epileptic doses over time. The aim of vagus nerve stimulation is to reduce the number of seizures, the length of the seizures and the severity of the seizures in a patient. It must be remembered though that the treatment has a wide range of side effects. Diet: The ketogenic diet. Ketogenic has the meaning, keto which means ketones and genic meaning producing, thus ketone producing. This diet is a high-fat, low-carbohydrate diet (Dr. Eric Kossoff, 2006). The formation of ketones is a result of the body using fat as its energy source. With the decrease in the intake of carbohydrates, the bodies usual energy source, the body uses a fat as an alternative energy source, thus giving rise to ketone formation in the body and ultimately leading to better seizure control. Surgery: this treatment is used when epilepsy cannot be controlled in the patient with medication use. There is no guarantee though that the surgery will have an effect on the patient. The aim of the surgery is to remove the damaged brain tissue in order to effectively stop the seizures (Anon, 2012). https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBFfvwEDxv1WOMkn6n1CoN5E85WvOuHLl3hA2XZBaY-1MxJF9VgCX4v0Maw_eLZrvPlMfBtQg15c4XP3O8kbWts-pbGt5qFbCdtzZ934o3TVYB2ccM-5_HiPKRgl41Vl8ExfV2xJAfkXa4/s320/sodium-valproate-4.jpg (Sodium Valporate, n.d.) Conclusion: Due to the high increase of epilepsy and heart attacks it is vital that awareness about the causes of these conditions should be made available. Epileptic patients should wear medical ID bracelets, making it easier to identify what could be happening to them during seizures. Light regulation should be put in place in all night clubs, reducing the speed of the strobe lights, therefore lowering the risk of epileptic seizures. A range of treatment options exist for those who have photosensitive epilepsy, but there is no absolute cure for the condition, therefore awareness plays a vital role in precaution and thus prevention of these epileptic attacks. With regards to the effect of the upbeat music genres on the heart and other bodily functions, the best way to curb this is to minimise exposure. This can only be done through people taking initiative to avoid falling victim to a health hazard that could have otherwise been avoided. Regulation of the volumes of the music can be another way to lower the risks, as well as avoiding increasing the tempo of the music as is often the case. Places playing heavy metal music should be avoided at all costs. One can eve

Gender Issues and Barriers in Chinese Business

Gender Issues and Barriers in Chinese Business What kind of barriers blocked (interrupt) female to be an organization leader in China? Abstract China is one of the most populous countries in the world, with over 50 percent of its female population in full time work. Like many other countries, China’s women are under-represented in senior management or organisational leadership roles within Chinese organisations. Yet Chinese women are being educated as well as men, if not better, and benefit from fundamental policies which prevent discrimination in the world of work. It appears that there are barriers which affect Chinese women’s ability to advance along the career ladder to become organisation leaders. A qualitative, Grounded Theory based study was carried out to determine what, if any, were the barriers to women becoming organisation leaders in China. The study aimed to ensure a focus on women themselves and so the sample comprised women already working within Chinese businesses and organisations, who were asked to identify barriers to their becoming business leaders or senior executives. Sensitising questions followed up an initial questionnaire and proforma, to probe into more detail about their responses. The Grounded Theory process of Open, Axial and Selective Coding was followed systematically, and the final three categories of Leadership Effectiveness, Stereotypes and Preconceptions, and Social and Societal Norms and Expectations and Personal Characteristics were identified and discussed. It seems that the key barriers to women becoming organisational leaders are their capacity to be effective leaders, the stereotypes and preconceptions of them as women workers, on the part of others and on the part of the women themselves, and the social norms versus their personal characteristics. This last category included unique aspects of Chinese culture and business etiquette which pose significant challenges for women in leadership roles. More research is now needed to explore in more concrete ways these barriers, and to identify practical and achievable ways that they might be overcome. Introduction China is one of the most populous nations in the world (Saran and Guo, 2005). â€Å"China is a large country, with more than half a billion women, over 50 per cent of who are in full-time employment† (Cooke, 2004 p 243). This represents a significant percentage of the workforce. There is, apparently, a discrepancy between the numbers of women in employment and the numbers of women who achieve senior leadership roles within Chinese organisations. It seems that â€Å"knowledge about these Chinese women in general and women in management in specific, remains very limited† (Cooke, 2004 p 243). There appear to be very little sources of information on the numbers of women in senior management or leadership positions in either the public or the private sector in China. While this may not seem to be a surprise to many, it does beg the question of why women do not achieve senior leadership positions within businesses and organisations in China, particularly given a growing aware ness of China’s success within the global business environment, which must influence business and organisational practices. It is established within the business and organisational literature, as well as other social literature, that â€Å"gender discrimination remains a reality in our society† (Agars, 2004 p 103). This is despite evolution of societies and apparent changes in values, because there is evidence that in all aspects of social life people and their reactions and judgements are affected by gender stereotypes and preconceptions (Agars, 2004). It is also well known that there are more men than women in managerial roles in the business and occupational world (Lublin, 1996), and this disparity increases the higher the seniority of the position (Agars, 2004; Adler and Izraili, 1994; AMBA, 1996). The rationale for investigating the barriers which block or interrupt women from being organisation leaders in China stems partly from the great reliance of the Chinese economy on its economic capacity, and in particular its business capacity, locally and in the global marketplace. Economic success of developing countries (if China can still be considered such) is clearly linked to gender equality (Morrison and Jutting, 2005). If Chinese businesses are to succeed, they need to espouse and contain the characteristics of successful businesses. If Chinese state organisations are to function at their optimal capacity and make best use of available resources, they should optimise their usage of those resources, a significant one being their human resources. Women may be being overlooked as potentially valuable contributors to senior management and leadership positions. However, this may simply reflect the lower status of women in Chinese society (Tian et al, 2007). Paradoxically, Chinese women are not necessarily viewed by all as of lower status. Foo et al (2006) quote a United Nations Development Fund study which summarises Chinese women as outshining men in the business arena because they are better at communications; they are able to think more rationally; and because they pursue their careers with single-minded resolve. Yet there is ongoing evidence that these women are still under-represented in senior leadership roles. Noble (2006) states â€Å"excluding women from leadership roles impacts on productivity and militates against a workforce characterised by a diversity of workers† (p 599). This idea of gender inequality comes down to simple business sense. â€Å"Models of women in senior positions and in equal numbers generally benefit the institutions offering different perspectives, experiences and contributions women can make. (Noble, 2006 p 599). Noble (2006) describes the lack of women in such roles as a â€Å"wastage of management and leadership talent which arises from and is perpetuated by the current under representation of women at senior levels,† and which â€Å"seriously undermines organisations’ ability to respond to change and threatens its future viability and vitality in the face of the economic challenges of the changing workplace.† p 599). Therefore, it can easily be seen that for optimal business performance, the capacity of women to contribute to its s uccess should not be overlooked, and so a study into the barriers which face women in achieving such positions could be of considerable significance for such organisations within China. However, the other rationale for this choice of investigation is to promote the interests of women within the Chinese world of employment and entrepreneurship, and to ensure that the research carried out focuses on their perspectives and illuminates their experiences. It is typical of the business world that the theoretical arena it is supported by is dominated by studies based on rationalistic principles and on outputs and outcomes relating to success and factors which contribute to that success. There is a human dimension of business, which the theoretical domain is now starting to appreciate, in which business capacity and success can be found to be reliant not only on the skills of the workforce, but on their capacity to contribute in multiple ways to the organisation and its outputs. Understanding the views and experiences of women may help not only to define the barriers which face them in relation to achieving leadership roles, but to set out some ways in which such barriers m ight be overcome, sidestepped, reduce or even removed from their path. Women within employment seem to consistently suffer, at a certain level, from a relative inequality with men. Women in China, however, have for a long time enjoyed employment rights based on equality legislation which has shaped social norms to support women into full time employment, which continues throughout their working lives, even when they have children (Cooke, 2004). Despite this, women do not enjoy the same levels of seniority in organisations and businesses as men do, and certainly not in similar numbers. This is a human rights issue (Noble, 2006) and one which is of concern to China and to all women and women’s activists. It may be related to a trend within former socialist countries of what Fan (2003) calls ‘transition’, which is characterised by a resurgence of gendered differences in occupational spheres. Because China is a business culture in a state of transition and change, and in which the effects of change may not be realised for some time, there is a need for investigative studies which explore the characteristics of this culture, from the points of view of those within it. There is an issue here about understanding what barriers present themselves to women who aspire to leadership roles, but also, whether or not women in these Chinese business and occupational spheres do view themselves as working towards such advancements. Because of the lack of empirical research on the subject of the barriers which present themselves to women who wish to aspire to leadership roles in organisations in China, the choice of methodological approach for the inquiry was limited, as quantitative studies are based on hypotheses developed from previously published research. Good quality quantitative research studies also require large samples of a diverse study population, and the limitations of this academic research project do not allow for the kind of survey that would provide adequate numbers, statistically, for a purely quantitative study. Therefore, having explored a range of options for the investigation of the research question, the author came to the conclusion that a quantitative approach would be best suited to this area. However, the author was keen to include simple descriptive statistics within the study data, and also wanted to achieve a similar level of rigour as is usually achievable within the quantitative d omain. Therefore, the author settled on the use of Grounded Theory (Glaser and Strauss, 1967), which is a methodology derived from symbolic interactionism and within which there are rigidly defined stages of the investigation, with clearly outlined process and steps towards the development of theoretical understandings which nevertheless remain firmly grounded in the data derived from the study (Glaser and Strauss, 1967; Goulding, 2005). The following dissertation is set out within the traditional parameters required by the university and by the academic standards of higher education. There is first a literature review, then a description and exploration of the methodology utilised within the study. This is followed by an outline of the data characteristics and background, which is then followed an exploration and discussion of the qualitative data derived from the study. This data is considered and evaluated alongside extant research findings which relate to the data, as is required by the Grounded Theory method, in which data analysis and literature analysis occur simultaneously, such that the accessed literature is treated much as the data is, and subject to the same constant comparison (Glaser and Strauss, 1967). This is followed by conclusions and recommendations for practice and further research. The study aimed to illuminate the murky depths of untapped knowledge and understanding of the barriers which interru pt women’s career progression within Chinese organisations, and thus barriers will be identified and to some extent, their meanings or significance explored. The literature review and the data analysis are separated into themed subheadings, to better signpost the emergent discursive threads of the study. Literature Review Due to the nature of the topic area, it is not possible to address all the available literature, but a critical literature review of key issues will be attempted. The literature review draws on sources related to Chinese business, women in business, entrepreneurship, social theory and even feminist theory, as well as general business and organisational studies, in order to explore the potential barriers that might have already been identified as challenging women to be organisational leaders. The balance of research is affected by the available literature, and by the nature of the research which has already been carried out into similar topics. Little however is written, in terms of empirical research, which directly addresses this dissertation’s research question. However, there are valuable contributions to be made by research from across the business and organisational literature in relation to generic and specific factors affecting women’s opportunities to become or ganisational leaders. China has a vast area of land, and is characterised by considerable social, economic, geographic and ethnic diversity (Chow et al, 2004). Only those factors which can directly be related to the study question will be addressed here. This will allow for the setting of the context and current understanding of the factors which affect the experience of women in China aspiring to become organisational and business leaders. In China, women work alongside their husbands throughout their lifespan, and are supported by employment policies which assure them a reasonably equal role as workers, in terms of basic employment rights (Chow et al, 2004). Therefore, women have a firm foundation within the world of employment, and should, it could be argued, be surrounded by the same opportunities as their male counterparts in terms of career advancement. However, this does not seem to be the case. It is a global feature of business that women seem to experience what is known as the ‘glass ceiling’ within occupational life (Ryan and Haslam, 2005; Cortis and Cassar, 2005). This refers to the fact that women can attain up to a certain level of seniority in many organisations or businesses, but cannot break through into senior leadership roles. There are numerous studies which explore how and why this glass ceiling came to exist, and how it is perpetuated. In terms of Chinese culture, there are strong traditions of loyalty to family and loyalty to one’s boss or employer (Fu et al, 2004). This author would question whether this notion of loyalty contributes to the glass ceiling within Chinese organisations. Gender Obviously, the first and most obvious potential barrier for women in business in China (and in any other culture or nation-state) is that of gender. Gender within this context needs defining, as theoretically, it is still the subject of some argument. Ahl (2006) refers back to feminist scholarship which employed the term gender to distinguish between biological sex and socially constructed definitions of sex, the social practices and representations associated with femininity or masculinity† (p 596). In this article, gender is used to refer to sex in terms of the biological differences between male and female, and the socially-constructed models of masculine and feminine. It is important to note that these may differ according to Western and Chinese norms, and where possible, differentiations between cultural definitions of gender will be highlighted. It has long been known that business is a male or masculine domain. There has been research which suggests that men and women even differ in terms of occupational aspirations, such that males would tend to aspire towards male-dominated occupations in which they can hope for better success, and women, though to a somewhat lesser extent, showing a tendency to veer towards female-dominated occupations in which they are more likely to be able to excel more easily (Powell and Butterfield, 2003). This may be partly due to historical and even current forms of gender discrimination within business and occupational/professional spheres. Gender discrimination however is no longer as apparent as it used to be, thanks to anti-discrimination policies in most organisations and nations (Beck and Davis, 2005). However, in China, â€Å"the half a century’s state intervention in women’s employment has largely focused on protecting women’s labour rights and increasing their share in employment quantitatively, whereas little provision exists which aims to ensure and improve the quality of women’s employment prospects† (Cooke, 2004 p 245). Cooke (2004) shows that women are less represented in professional or management positions, and are more prevalent in clerical and lower-level manual work (Sargeson 2006; Sargeson 2007a). This is significant, given that Chinese women do not traditionally take career breaks to have children, and view their role as equal to that of their husbands in terms of full time work (Cooke, 2004; Sargeson 2007b). This is in direct contrast to the Westernised (and perhaps globalised) norms of women’s occupational experience, wherein women have to either accepted diminished occupational capacity and career advancement in order to have children, or embrace childlessness in order to comply with inherent business norms and achieve success within those parameters (Wood and Newton, 2006; Burke, 1999). Even so, â€Å"men make up the majority of employees in most of the occupations and in state owned sectors where average earnings are highest† (Cooke, 2004 p 245). This is no new finding. For women in China, â€Å"historical and socio-political factors such as the legacy of Marxism, state/party control, economic reform, political upheavals, local conditions and global influences† have affected their self identity, they understanding of their place within the business and employment worlds, and the ways in which they perceive of and experience their career progress and success (Chow et al, 2004, p 161). China has followed an intellectual revolution which has brought to the fore gender studies and feminist studies (Chow et al, 2004), which suggests that the cultural response would likely be that women are more aware of the kinds of organisational and societal cultural barriers to their career advancement into leadership roles. Studying Chinese women’s experiences of barriers to career advancement could be problematic, however, because the very terms used by Westernised scholarly discourse to describe issues of gender and women’s equal rights are essentially difficult to translate (Chow et al, 2004). However, as all literature for this assignment is accessed in English, this should only be viewed as a potential weakness to the study if the respondents are first language Chinese and there are discrepancies between underlying meanings. Another feature of gender discrimination in Chinese business is the fact that the â€Å"state-owned enterprises and public-sector organisations typically operate in an internal labour market system in which jobs are rarely advertised, and promotion decisions are made internally†¦by superiors† (Cooke, 2004, p 249). This means that internal cultural and business mores and codes, which are often set and perpetuated by managers and leaders (who are most likely men), are perpetuated in a way that might exclude women from achieving advancement (Boisot and Child, 1996; Church et al, 2003). These are however buried, often, and not easily labelled as gender discrimination (Beck and Davis, 2005). This is a common feature of all businesses and organisations, it seems, which continue to operate along traditional ‘patriarchal’ and hierarchical lines. Cultural issues also point to gender issues which may present as barriers to women’s career advancement (Brush, 1992). Hanser (2005) explores emerging conceptions of gender in China, in relation, in particular, to service work. This ethnographic study within three urban Chinese retain settings shows that there are gendered class distinctions which are communicated and perpetuated within this sector, which a move from socialism to a more marketized society, wherein younger, youthful and feminine (and urban) women are valued while older and rural women are devalued (Hanser, 2005; Duehr and Bono, 2006). This is reflected in other international contexts and other types of societies (Egri and Ralston, 2004). Hanser (2005) related this to a legitmization of certain roles for certain women within Chinese employment contexts, a fact supported by Coe (1992). This then has nothing to do with role effectiveness, but to do with the external characteristics of women (Hanser, 2005; Cooke; 2 003; Cooke, 2005). Appropriate ‘behaviours’ may be reinforced and inappropriate behaviours censured by such limited characterisations of the suitable female employee (Hanser, 2005). Lewis (2006) uses the example of women entrepreneurs, and suggests that â€Å"the behaviour (business or other) of women involved in entrepreneurial activity of whatever sort is defined and evaluated according to the standards of an invisible masculine norm† (p 453). This shows that underlying business activities are gendered definitions of how people within the market should behave and present themselves (Collinson and Collinson, 1990; Connell, 2005). Because of this, women’s ability to gain commercial, business or occupational success is defined and constrained by apparently unseen (but very real) forces (Cornelius and Skinner, 2008): â€Å"Where this behaviour is judged as differing from the normative standard of serious, professional business, women experience an ‘othering’ as the non-male and are marked out.† (Lewis, 2006 p 453). This is a constant theme of the business literature, that the male is the standard and the female is viewed as ‘other’, as unconventional, as non-standard (and perhaps inherently non-compliant) (Beechey, 1987). Perceptions of gender and gender limitations may also be internalised by many women, and may explain one reason why women do not lead as many successful businesses as men, or are not business leaders as frequently (Bryman, 1987). Kalleberg and Leicht (2005) show that women are less likely to innovate, take risks or step out in new directions in business than men, perhaps due to â€Å"the social disapproval girls are likely to incur for straying from socially accepted, gender-normative patterns of behaviour, and the encouragement and tolerance that boys typically receive for engaging in innovative play and nonconforming behaviour† (p 142). Education It is thought by some theorists that the lower representation of women in senior positions is due to their marginally lower levels of education compared to those of men in China (Cooke, 2004). However, it is also apparent that amount of women in higher education has been increasing recently in China, at a much faster rate than men (Cooke, 2004). Education is seen as a key to senior executive careers (Baruch and Peiperl, 2000; Bickerstaffe, 1992; Carpenter, 1997). This would suggest that the relative lack of education suggested as a barrier to women achieving senior leadership roles may be a factor which is being rapidly eroded. However, it is hard to find evidence of this. Cooke (2004) also argues that â€Å"discrimination against women starts in the recruitment selection to higher education in institutions† (p 247), and this has follow-on effects throughout their subsequent careers. Women are under-represented in certain subjects, including science and business subjects, and have to perform better than men to achieve the same levels of acclaim (Cooke, 2004). Bahry and Marr (2005) show how women’s education in Qatar has developed to such an extent that women are being over-represented in higher education, and that this might signify a shift in gender-dominance in future business domains. However, the nature of this education is not necessarily such that it would develop the kinds of abilities and capacities that are needed in order to gain leadership roles later on in life (Bahry and Marr, 2005). Globalisation and the current international business environment It is important to consider where women business leaders or potential business leaders in China might locate themselves, ideologically and paradigmatically, and how the current environment might affect their ability to assume such senior roles. Mamman and Liu (2008) discuss the difference between macro-level examinations of globalisation on business (and on culture and society), and the micro-level, in which the effects of globalisation on individuals can be appreciated. Globalisation can potentially affect all areas of business (Gunkel et al, 2007). China has, since the 1980s, both embraced and significantly benefited from industrial and business globalisation (Fishman, 2006; Hirst and Thompson, 1999; Stiglitz, 2002; 2003; 2006). According to Mamman and Liu (2008), â€Å"globalisation is particularly important to a society like China where the impact of globalization can have both positive and negative connotations depending on where individuals are geographically located and wheth er they operate in the public or private sector† (p 2). Thus, there may be barriers to achieving career success or business leadership for women in China which are directly related to their personal experience or understanding of globalisation. Mamman and Liu (2008) suggest that â€Å"the form and manner in which globalization is pursued by organizations (private or public) and the nation states is an aggregation of thoughts and behaviour of individuals enabled and constrained by global forces† (p 6). This kind of understanding would suggest that global forces may act as barriers to women becoming business leaders, but it could also be viewed that globalisation could likely be an emancipating force for women in China, because it might at least provide role models for business leadership in other areas and across a diverse range of businesses (Elliott and Stead, 2008). However, it is not enough to cite the forces that emerge from globalisation, such as greater participation in more diverse markets or the presence of women peers with which to do business. It is also important to understand the individual level of response to the new global business environment. It seems that â€Å"to understand why and how organizations and institutions behave in the global economy, we also need to understand how key actors interpret global phenomenon† (p 6). Therefore, accessing individual women who work within business, and women who are seeking to develop as entrepreneurs, would provide th is personal understanding of the global forces of business and perhaps identify more individual as well as international barriers to women succeeding as business leaders. Globalisation is viewed in the business literature usually in positive terms (Mittelman, 2006), but Oka (1998) argues that this may not be the case. Oka (1998) suggests that the terminology of globalisation has â€Å"a distinct connotation of something whole †¦[that] suggests absolute relatedness, harmony, balance and smoothness† (p 32). However, this, according to Oka (1998) is not the case, and there is the argument that globalisation might corrupt social values which underpin society and over-value economics and material gain. However, given the current socialist model of society and economy in China, globalisation may not necessarily be a destabilising force, and the history of business in China in the last two decades certainly suggests that the country and its industry has taken full advantage of the opportunities globalisation presents (Mamman and Liu, 2008; Parker, 2005). Mamman and Liu (2008) carried out research in individual views and responses to globalisation in China, and found that â€Å"respondents view globalization from economic perspective rather than from cultural convergence or political convergence perspective.† (p 32). This suggests that globalisation is most significant to industry and business for Chinese women in business. Mamman and Liu (2008) also state that their respondents viewed globalisation as a product of capitalism: â€Å"they view globalization not only as economic activities but as a philosophical and ideological (not cultural) shift in the way the world conducts economic activities† P 32). This research suggests that globalisation is not part of a potential package of cultural barriers to women business or organisation leaders in China. But Child (2002) does underline the potential cultural conflicts which might challenge women in responding to global business markets, if they have not really had the appropriate training, experience or support during their business or organisational careers. Yet, it may be that many women who wish to assume leadership positions in China are not challenged by global forces or by potential cultural differences, simply because they take a pragmatic view of business and leadership. For these, globalisation might erode barriers to them achieving such roles (Dunning, 2003; Fiss and Hirsch, 2005). Understanding the global context however, is possible from international literature. Beck and Davis (2005) cite the case of a financial organisation Australia that was attempting to increase the numbers of women at managerial level. This organisation had to overcome not only attitudinal barriers but personal barriers (Beck and Davis, 2005). Bahry and Marr, (2005) discuss the social and ideological shifts which have changed women’s roles and status in Quatar, such that they may be becoming more endowed with the capacity to take on leadership roles. However, Singh and Vinnicombe (2004) show that it is still the norm that masculine senior level managers and boards maintain their hegemonic status: â€Å"Evidence shows that senior women do not easily gain access to the boardroom, where an elite group of male directors maintain their power† (Singh and Vinnicombe, 2004 p 479). If Chinese businesses are being significantly affected by Westernised business practices, there is the potential that these practices present more barriers to women taking on senior leadership positions, rather than helped to change entrenched cultural values which have been seen as inherent in Chinese business practice. Gobalisation may therefore be viewed as a source of new hurdles and obstacles to be surmounted for women in China. These barriers include what are described as ‘informal’ or ‘hidden’ processes associated with senior promotion (Alimo-Metcalfe, 1995), a relative lack of appropriate and available career development routes and activities (Ragins et al, 1998), and, the more obvious barrier, the lower levels of pay allocated to women (Oakley, 2000). There are also behavioural and cultural barriers, which include the gender role stereotyping of leadership capability (Schein and Muller, 2002), communication styles which reflect gendered differences (Tannen, 1994), and the social exclusion, corporate cultural norms, entrenched power dynamics and old boys’ networks which characterise British and American businesses (Ragins Sundstrom, 1989). It can be seen that while there may be similarities in Chinese businesses in terms of barriers which emerge from traditional business norms and behaviours, there may be others which could be derived from the businesses they are exposed to in the Global marketplace. Therefore, Chinese women may find themselves having to face and adapt to more or different challenges to ascending the corporate or organisational ladder. Personal Capabilities Other factors which may affect women’s career success at senior level is a perception that they are not capable of leading businesses as well as men (Cooke, 2004; Kalleberg and Leicht, 2005; Fischlmayr, 2002), and the women being faced with competing family demands, particularly from children (Beatty, 1996). This is not necessarily the case in China, however, because it has become the cultural norm for women to work full time, even after having had children, and women do not take career breaks to have children, a fact which is facilitated by the one-child rule (Cooke, 2004). Women may be viewed however in terms of their gender and this will likely affect not only perceptions of their effectiveness as leaders, but evaluations of their success as well (Gunkel et al, 2007; Gutek, 1985; Fondas, 1997). Ryan and Haslam (2005) suggest that when traditional masculi

Essay --

1.0 Description on the selected organization: IKEA is one of the huge successful retailers in the world whereby has 280 stores in 26 countries by the year 2010 and had been visited by 580 million shoppers. IKEA has elegant designed products with low priced. IKEA’s sale has increased from 4.4 billion in 1994 to 23.5 billion in 2010. The author has attached the sales report in appendix 1 and 2. The founder was Ingvar Kamprad whereby he is still a dynamic advice-giver of IKEA despite his age reached 80. IKEA had influence worldwide market widely with a good strategic marketing tool. IKEA products are cheaper 30%-40% compare to other retailers. Besides that, Asian market convinced with their economical western product that has complete household products. In this chapter, the author had explained on the overall IKEA’s history. In the next chapter, had explained on four important macro elements followed by the macro elements effect towards the organization, and also given suggestions to manage the organization accordin g to the macro elements. Company Background Scott Allen (2014), stated Ingvar Kamprad formed IKEA in Sweden when he was 17 years old in year 1943. His company at first selling fish, christmas magazines, and seeds from the family farm then started selling matches whereby they bought 100 per lots and sold it individually by marking up the prices higher. Scott Allen (2014), stated the name IKEA means, I and K is Ingvar Kamprad initial, E is Elmtaryd which is family farmhouse and A is for Agunnaryd, the name of village where he came from that is located in Southern Sweden. Kamprad has also added ballpoint pens and sold them through mail order. His warehouse is small sheltered house located in their family farmhouse. He man... ...t and satisfactions. In addition, IKEA’s threats are poor understanding of cultural needs and demands. Economically, IKEA's growth had increased due to their low price furniture. The threats, are IKEA had failures to look into the quality of the product. Technologically, IKEA products able to standardized globally. Perhaps, to maintained IKEA's business they tried to stabilize their business with different angles such as stabilizing political status by maintaining good rapport and follow legalization rules all countries. IKEA has also use good method of approaching all the people and improve the performance of their services and products. Furthermore, the entrepreneurs good in assessing, planning and implementing accordingly in order to face any challenges. IKEA has able to accommodate the actual demand in the market towards new technology and younger generations.

Essay --

The Band and Its Placement in American Music The Band has come to be known as one of the top one hundred greatest group of performers in the twentieth century. At the height of their popularity in the late 1960s, America was drawing a harsh divide between generations, races, genders, and political ideologies. Rock and Roll at this point had become a defining feature of the counterculture (the younger generations were disillusioned with the then upheld principles of American society) and as such was seen as a menace which often voiced harsh criticisms against figures and institutions of authority really long sentence. Amidst the chaos between music and society, a humbly talented group of performers released what some have called the purest most honest music of the generation. The Band had its influences rooted in the country, rock’ n’ roll, and rhythm and blues music of the early 1950s. To more than a few members of the group, performers such as Little Richard, Elvis Presley, Conway Twitty, Johnny Cash, and Jerry Lee Lewis inspired them to pursue music with the passionate zeal that usually accompanies talented musicians. The members: Robbie Robertson, Levon Helm, Rick Danko, Garth Hudson, and Richard Manuel were all multi-instrumentalists and as such got their start as musicians from early ages, Levon Helm for example started playing guitar at the age of nine. In 1958, Helm began touring with an established band known as Ronnie Hawkins and the Hawks throughout Ontario, Canada. This pre-incarnation of the Band earned fame throughout Canada before finally deciding to settle in Toronto where their most profitable gigs occurred at. Homesickness, however prevented the Hawks from remaining together for very long. As members of ... ... seems to highlight all of the genres that the group was influenced by and in turn showcases their progressive sound. Not only does the song recant a folk-tale in the form of a ballad but also shows the complexities of characters as archetypes of mankind and alludes to the biblical wanderings of the disciples. The song was also featured in the 1978 documentary of The Band, The Last Waltz, directed by Martin Scorsese. As a final hoorah, the Band concluded their touring in 1976 with a cadre of other influential artists such as Paul McCartney, Neil Young, Eric Clapton, Van Morrison and others. The film the Last Waltz has also lived on as an inspiration to current artists and has been acclaimed as a must see for musicians. The film not only captures the performances of The Band but also presents them in the context of the culture, amidst famous aspects of rock and roll.

Electronic Literature as an Information System Essay

ABSTRACT Electronic literature is a term that encompasses artistic texts produced for printed media which are consumed in electronic format, as well as text produced for electronic media that could not be printed without losing essential qualities. Some have argued that the essence of electronic literature is the use of multimedia, fragmentation, and/or non-linearity. Others focus on the role of computation and complex processing. â€Å"Cybertext† does not sufficiently describe these systems. In this paper we propose that works of electronic literature, understood as text (with possible inclusion of multimedia elements) designed to be consumed in bi- or multi-directional electronic media, are best understood as 3-tier (or n-tier) information systems. These tiers include data (the textual content), process (computational interactions) and presentation (on-screen rendering of the narrative). The interaction between these layers produces what is known as the work of electronic literature. This paradigm for electronic literature moves beyond the initial approaches which either treated electronic literature as computerized versions of print literature or focused solely on one aspect of the system. In this paper, we build two basic arguments. On the one hand, we propose that the conception of electronic literature as an  information system gets at the essence of electronic media, and we predict that this paradigm will become dominant in this field within the next few years. On the other hand, we propose that building information systems may also lead in a shift of emphasis from one-time artistic novelties to reusable systems. Demonstrating this approach, we read works from the _Electronic Literature Collection Volume 1_ (Jason Nelson and Emily Short) as well as newer works by Mez and the team gathered by Kate Pullinger and Chris Joseph. Glancing toward the future, we discuss the n-tier analysis of the Global Poetic System and the La Flood Project. INTRODUCTION The fundamental attributes of digital narrative have been, so far, mostly faithful to the origin of electronic text: a set of linked episodes that contain hypermedia elements. Whether or not some features could be reproduced in printed media has been subject of debate by opponents and proponents of digital narratives. However, as the electronic media evolves, some features truly unique to digital narrative have appeared. For instance, significant effort has been invested in creating hypertexts responsive to the reader’s actions by making links dynamic; additionally, there have been efforts to create systems capable of producing fiction, with varying degrees of success. Both approaches have in common that they grant greater autonomy to the computer, thus making of it an active part of the literary exchange. The increasing complexity of these systems has directed critical attention to the novelty of the processes that produce the texts. As critics produce a flood of neologisms to classify these works, the field is suffering from a lack of a shared language for these works, as opposed to drawing from the available computer science and well-articulated terminology of information systems. The set {Reader, Computer, Author} forms a system in which there is flow and manipulation of information, i.e. an _information system_. The interaction between the elements of an information system can be isolated in functional tiers. For instance: one or many data tiers, processing tiers, and presentation tiers. In general we will talk about n-tier information  systems. We will expand this definition in the next section. In this system, a portion of information produced (output) is taken, totally or partially, as input, i.e. there is a feedback loop and therefore the process can be characterized as a cybernetic process. Of course, the field has already embraced the notion of the cybertext. The term cybertext was brought to the literary world’s attention by Espen Aarseth (1997). His concept focuses on the organization of the text in order to analyze the influence of media as an integral part of literary dynamics. According to Aarseth, cybertext is not a genre in itself. In order to classify traditions, literary genres and aesthetic value, Aarseth argues, we should inspect texts at a much more local level. The concept of cybertext offers a way to expand the reach of literary studies to include phenomena that are perceived today as foreign or marginal. In Aarseth’s work, cybertext denotes the general set of text machines which, operated by readers, yield different texts for reading. Aarseth (1997, p. 19), refuses to narrow this definition of cybertext to â€Å"such vague and unfocused terms such as digital text or electronic literature.† For the course of this paper, we will use the phrase â€Å"electronic literature,† as we are interested in those works that are markedly literary in that they resonate (at least on one level) through evocative linguistic content and engage with an existing literary corpus. While we find â€Å"cybertext† to be a useful concept, the taxonomies and schematics that attend this approach interfere with interdisciplinary discussions of electronic literature. Instead of using Aarseth’s neologisms such as textons, scriptons and traversal functions, we will use widely-accepted terminology in the field of computer science. This shift is important because the concepts introduced by Aarseth, which are relevant to the current discussion, can be perfectly mapped to concepts developed years earlier in computer science. While the neologisms introduced by Aarseth remain arcane, the terms used in computer science are pervasive. Although the term cybertext adds a sense of increasingly complex interactivity, its focus is primarily on the interaction between a user and  a single art object. Such a framework, however, insufficiently describes the constitution of such an object. Within his treatise, Aarseth is compelled to create tables of attributes and taxonomies to map and classify each of these objects. What is needed is a framework for discussing how these systems operate and how that operation contributes to an overall literary experience. We want to make a clear distinction between this notion of cybertext as a reading process and more thorough description of a work’s infrastructure. Clearly, there are many ways in which the interaction between a reader and a piece of electronic literature can happen; for instance, a piece of electronic literature could be written in HTML or in Flash, yet presenting the same interaction with the reader. In this paper, we adapt the notion of n-tier information systems to provide a scaffolding for reading and interpreting works of electronic literature. The fact that the field of electronic literature is largely comprised of cybertexts (in the sense described above) that require some sort of processing by the computer, has made of this processing a defining characteristic. Critics and public approach new works of electronic literature with the expectation of finding creativity and innovation not only at the narrative level but also at the processing level; in many cases the newness of the latter has dominated other considerations. NEW, NEWER, NEWEST MEDIA Until now, electronic literature, or elit, has been focused on the new, leading to a constant drive to reinvent the wheel, the word, the image, the delivery system, and consequently reading itself. However, such an emphasis raises a number of questions. To what extent does the â€Å"novel† requirement of electronic literature (as the field is currently defined) de-emphasize a textual investment in exploring the (post)human condition (â€Å"the literary†)? How does this emphasis on the â€Å"new† constrain the development of New Media both for authors and for prospective authors? Or how does such an emphasis put elit authors into an artistic arms race taking on the aethetics of the militiary-industrial complex that produces their tools? Literary essays that treat electronic literature focus on Flash movies, blogs, HTML pages, dynamically generated pages, conversation agents, computer games, and other software applications. A recent edition of Leonardo Almanac (AA.VV. 2006) offers several examples. Its critics/poets analyze the â€Å"information landscapes† of David Small, the text art experiments of Suguru Ishizaki (2003), Brian Kim Stefans’ 11-minute Flash performance, and Philippe Bootz’s matrix poetry program. Though not all the objects are new, what they share most of all is the novelty of their surface or process or text. These works bear little resemblance to one another, a definitive characteristic of electronic literature (dissimilarity); however, their inclusion under one rubric reflects the field’s fetishization of the new. This addiction, mimicking that of the hard sciences it so admires, must constantly replace old forms and old systems with the latest system. Arguably, therefore, any piece of electronic literature may only be as interesting as its form or its novel use of the form. Moreover, such an emphasis shifts the critical attention from the content (what we will call data) to its rendering (or presentation plus processes) primarily. Marie-Laure Ryan (2005) raised charges against such an aesthetic in her _dichtung-digital_ article. In this piece, she rails against a certain style of new media, net.art, elit art object that follows WYSINWYG (What you see is _NOT_ what you get), where the surface presents a text that is considered interesting only because of a more interesting process beneath the surface. This approach, according to Ryan, focuses on â€Å"the meta-property of algorithmic operation.† For this aesthetic, â€Å"the art resides in the productive formula, and in the sophistication of the programming, rather than in the output itself† (Ryan). This means that literary, or artistic value, does not reside in what appears on the screen, but in the virtuoso programming performance that underlies the text. While Ryan goes too far in her dismissal of experimentation, her critique holds, in as much as electronic literary criticism that puts process uber alis risks not only minimizing the textual to insignificance but also losing what should be one of elit’s biggest goals: developing new forms for other authors to use and  explore. Such an emphasis reveals a bias that has thus far dominated new media scholarship. This same bias leads new media scholars away from literary venues for their discourse communities and instead to Boing Boing and Siggraph, sites where curiosity or commercial technological development dominate the discussions. It is also what spells instant obsolescence to many authorware forms. The person who uses authorware as it was intended is not the new media artist. It is the person who uses it in a new way or who reconfigures the software to do something unintended. This trend means that electronic literary artists will constantly be compelled to drive their works towards the new, even while it means a perpetual pruning of all prior authorware, cutting them off from the†literary† tree. (We see this same logic in commerical software production where the 4.0 release reconfigures the interface and removes some of the functionality we had grown to love.) A disproportionate emphasis on the new overlooks the tremendous areas of growth in authorship on the stabilizing, if rudimentary, authoring systems. The tide of productivity (in terms of textual output of all levels of quality) is not from an endless stream of innovations but from people who are writing text in established author information formats, from traditional print to blogs. It is through the use of stabilized and reusable information systems that the greater public is being attracted to consume and produce content through digital media. Blogging is the clearest example. This is not equivalent to saying that all blogging is literary, just as not all writing is; however, blogging has created a social practice of reading and writing in digital media, thus increasing the frequency at which literary pieces appear through that venue. This increased community activity would have been impossible if each blogger had to develop their own authoring systems. To help redistribute the scholarly priorities, we propose a reconsideration of electronic literature as an n-tier information system. The consequence of this shift will be twofold: First of all, it will allow us to treat content and processing independently, thus creating a clear distinction between works of literary merit and works of technological craftsmanship. While this  distinction is at best problematic, considering the information system as a whole will move the analysis away from over-priveleging processes. Secondly, we claim that this approach provides a unified framework with which all pieces of electronic literature can be studied. This paper is organized as follows: in Section 1 (Introduction) we describe what is the problem we intend to explore, and what are the type of systems that will be described in this paper. Section 2 (Information Systems) explores the components of an information system and compares the approaches of different researchers in the field. Section 3 (Examples) demonstrates that the n-tier information system approach can be used to describe a multifarious array of pieces of electronic literature. Section 4 (Discussion) explores the conclusions drawn from this study and set future directions. INFORMATION SYSTEMS Since electronic literature is mediated by a computer, it is clear that there must exist methods to enter information into the system, to process it, and to render an output for readers; that is to say, a piece of electronic literature can be considered as an _information system_. The term â€Å"information system† has different meanings. For instance, in mathematics an â€Å"information system† is a basic knowledge-representation matrix comprised of attributes (columns) and objects (rows). In sociology, â€Å"information systems† are systems whose behavior is determined by goals of individual as well as technology. In our context, â€Å"information system† will refer to a set of persons and machines organized to collect, store, transform, and represent data, a definition which coincides with the one widely accepted in computer science. The domain-specific twist comes when we specify that the data contains, but is not limited to, literary information. Information systems, due to their complexity, are usually built in layers. The earliest antecedent to a multi-layer approach to software architectures goes back to Trygve Reenskaug who proposed in 1979, while visiting the Smalltalk group at Xerox PARC, a pattern known as Model-View-Controller  (MVC) that intended to isolate the process layer from the presentation layer. This paradigm evolved during the next decade to give rise to multi-tier architectures, in which presentation, data and processes were isolated. In principle, it is possible to have multiple data tiers, multiple process tiers, and multiple presentation tiers. One of the most prominent paradigms to approach information systems in the field of computer science, and the one we deem more appropriate for electronic literature, is the 3-tier architecture (Eckerson, 1995). This paradigm indicates that processes of different categories should be encapsulated in three different layers: 1. Presentation Layer: The physical rendering of the narrative piece, for example, a sequence of physical pages or the on-screen presentation of the text. 2. Process Layer: The rules necessary to read a text. A reader of Latin alphabet in printed narrative, for example, must cross the text from left to right, from top to bottom and pass the page after the last word of the last line. In digital narrative, this layer could contain the rules programmed in a computer to build a text output. 3. Data Layer: Here lays the text itself. It is the set of words, images, video, etc., which form the narrative space. In the proposed 3-tier model, feedback is not only possible, but also a _sine qua non_ condition for the literary exchange. It is the continuation of McLluhan’s mantra: â€Å"the media is the message†. In digital narrative, the media acts on the message. The cycle of feedback in digital narrative is: (i) Readers receive a piece of information, and based on it they execute a new interaction with the system. (ii) The computer then takes that input and applies logic rules that have been programmed into it by the author. (iii) The computer takes content from the data layer and renders it to the reader in the presentation layer. (iv) step -i – is repeated again. Steps i through v describe a complete cycle of feedback, thus the maximum realization of a cybertext. N-tier information systems have had, surprisingly, a relatively short penetration in the field of electronic literature. Aarseth (1997, p.62) introduced a typology for his textonomy that maps perfectly a 3-tier system: Scriptons (â€Å"strings as they appear to readers†) correspond to the presentation layer, textons (â€Å"strings as they exist in the text†) correspond to the data layer, and traversal function (â€Å"the mechanism by which scriptons are revealed or generated from textons and presented to the user†) corresponds to the process layer. These neologisms, while necessary if we study all forms of textuality, are unnecessary if we focus on electronic literature. The methods developed in computer science permeate constantly, and at an accelerating rate, the field of electronic literature, specially as artists create pieces of increasing complexity. Practitioners in the field of electronic literature will be better equipped to benefit from the advances in information technology if the knowledge acquired in both fields can be bridged; without a common terminology attempts to generate dialog are thwarted. The first reference that used computer science terminology applied to electronic literature appeared in an article by Gutierrez (2002), in which the three layers (data, logic and presentation) were clearly defined and proposed as a paradigm for electronic literature. Gutierrez (2004, 2006) explored in detail the logic (middle) layer, proposing algorithms to manage the processes needed to deliver literary content through electronic media. His proposal follows the paradigm proposed by Eckerson (1995) and Jacobson et al (1999): the system is divided into (a) topological stationary components, (b) users, (c) and transient components (processes). The processes in the system are analyzed and represented using sequence diagrams to depict how the actions of the users cause movement and transformation of information across different topological components. The next reference belongs to Wardrip-Fruin (2006); he proposes not three, but seven components: (i) author, (ii) data, (iii) process, (iv) surface, (v) interaction, (vi) outside processes, and (vii) audiences. This vision corresponds to an extensive research in diverse fields, and the interpretation is given from a literary perspective. Even though  Wardrip-Fruin does not use the terminology already established in computer science, nor he makes a clear distinction between topology, actors and processes, his proposal is essentially equivalent, and independent, from Gutierrez’s model. In Wardrip-Fruin’s model, author -i- and audience -vii- correspond to actors in the Unified Process (UP); process -iii- and interaction -v- correspond to the process layer in the 3-tier architecture (how the actors move information across layers and how it is modified); data -ii- maps directly the data layer in the 3-tier model; finally, surface -iv- corresponds to the presentation layer. The emergence of these information systems approaches marks the awareness that these new literary forms arise from the world of software and hence benefit from traditional computer science approaches to software. In the Language of New Media, Lev Manovich called for such analysis under the rubric of Software Studies. Applying the schematics of computer science to electronic literature allows critics to consider the complexities of that literature without falling prey to the tendency to colonize electronic literature with literary theory, as Espen Aarseth warned in Cybertext. Such a framework provides a terminology rather than the imposition of yet another taxonomy or set of metaphors that will always prove to be both helpful and glaringly insufficient. That is not to say that n-tier approaches fit works without conflict. In fact, some of the most fruitful readings come from the pieces that complicate the n-tier distinctions. EXAMPLES DREAMAPHAGE 1 & 2: REVISING OUR SYSTEMS Jason Nelson’s Dreamaphage (2003, 2004) demonstrates the ways in which the n-tier model can open up the complexities and ironies of works of electronic literature. Nelson is an auteur of interfaces, and in the first version of this piece he transforms the two-dimensional screen into a three-dimensional navigable space full of various planes. The interactor travels through these planes, encountering texts on them, documentation of the disease. It is as if we are traveling through the data structure of the story itself, as if  the data has been brought to the surface. Though in strict terms, the data is where it always was supposed to be. Each plane is an object, rendered in Flash on the fly by the processing of the navigation input and the production of vector graphics to fill the screen. However, Nelsons’ work distances us, alienates us from the visual metaphors that we have taken for the physical structures of data in the computer. Designers of operating systems work hard to naturalize our relationship to our information. Opening windows, shuffling folders, becomes not a visual manifestation but the transparent glimpse of the structures themselves. Neal Stephenson has written very persuasively on the effect of replacing the command line interface with these illusions. The story (or data) behind the piece is the tale of a virus epidemic, whose primary symptom is the constant repetition of a dream. Nelson writes of the virus’ â€Å"drifting eyes.† Ultimately the disease proves fatal, as patients go insane then comatose. Here the piece is evocative of the repetitive lexias of classical electronic literature, information systems that lead the reader into the same texts as a natural component of traversing the narrative. Of course, the disease also describes the interface of the planes that the user travels through, one after the other, semi-transparent planes, dreamlike visions. This version of Dreamaphage was not the only one Nelson published. In 2004, Nelson published a second interface. Nelson writes of the piece, â€Å"Unfortunately the first version of Dreamaphage suffered from usability problems. The main interface was unwieldy (but pretty) and the books hard to find (plus the occasional computer crash)† (â€Å"Dreamaphage, _ELC I_) He reconceived of the piece in two dimensions to create a more stable interface. The second version is two-dimensional and Nelson has also â€Å"added a few more extra bits and readjusted the medical reports.† In the terms of n-tier, his changes primarily affected the interface and the data layers. Here is the artist of the interface facing the uncanny return of their own artistic creation in a world where information systems do not lie in the stable binding in a book but in a contingent state that is always dependent  on the environments (operating systems) and frames (browser) in which they circulate. As the user tries to find a grounding in the spaces and lost moments of the disease, Nelson himself attempts to build stability into that which is always shifting. However, do to a particular difference in the way that Firefox 2.0 renders Flash at the processing layer, interactors will discover that the†opening† page of the second version is squeezed into a fraction of their window, rather than expanding to fill the entire window. At this point, we are reminded of the work’s epigram, â€Å"All other methods are errors. The words of these books, their dreams, contain the cure. But where is the pattern? In sleeping the same dream came again. How long before I become another lost?† (â€Å"opening†). As we compare these two versions of the same information system, we see the same dream coming again. The first version haunts the second as we ask when will it, too, become one of the lost. Though Nelson himself seems to have an insatiable appetite for novel interfaces, his own artistic practices resonate well with the ethos of this article. At speaking engagements, he has made it a practice to bring his interfaces, his .fla (Flash source) files, for the attendees to take and use as they please. Nelson presents his information systems with a humble declaration that the audience may no doubt be able to find even more powerful uses for these interfaces. GALATEA: NOVELTY RETURNS Emily Short’s ground-breaking work of interactive fiction offers another work that, like its namesake in the piece, opens up to this discussion when approached carefully. Galatea’s presentation layer appears to be straight forward IF fare. The interactor is a critic, encountering Galatea, which appears to be a statue of a woman but then begins to move and talk. In this novel work of interactive fiction, the interactor will not find the traditional spacial navigation verbs (go, open, throw) to be productive, as the action focuses on one room. Likewise will other verbs prove themselves unhelpful as the user is encouraged in the help instructions to â€Å"talk† or  Ã¢â‚¬Å"ask† about topics. In Short’s piece, the navigational system of IF, as it was originally instantiated in Adventure, begins to mimic a conversational system driven by keywords, ala Joseph Weizenbaum’s ELIZA. Spelunking through a cave is replaced with conversing through an array of conversational replies. Galatea does not always answer the same way. She has moods, or rather, your relationship with Galatea has levels of emotion. The logic layer proves to be more complex than the few verbs portend. The hunt is to figure out the combination that leads to more data. Galatea uses a novel process to put the user in the position of a safe cracker, trying to unlock the treasure of answers. Notice how novelty has re-emerged as a key attribute here. Could there be a second Galatea? Could someone write another story using Galatea’s procesess. Technically no, since the work was released in a No-Derivs Creative Commons license. However, in many ways, Galatea is a second, coming in the experimental wave of artistic revisions of interactive fiction that followed the demise of the commercially produced text adventures from Infocom and others. Written in Z-Machine format, Galatea is already reimagining an information system. It is a new work written in the context of Infocom’s interactive fiction system. Short’s work is admittedly novel in its processes, but the literary value of this work is not defined by its novely. The data, the replies, the context they describe, the relationship they create are rich and full of literary allusions. Short has gone on to help others make their own Galatea, not only in her work to help develop the natural language IF authoring system Inform 7 but also in the conversation libraries she has authored. In doing so, she moved into the work of other developers of authoring systems, such as the makers of chatbot systems. Richard S. Wallace developed one of the most popular of these (A.I.M.L..bot), and his work demonstrates the power of creating and sharing authorware, even in the context of the tyranny of the novel. A.L.I.C.E. is the base-line conversational system, which can be downloaded and customized. Downloading the basic, functioning A.L.I.C.E. chatbot as a foundation allows users to concentrate on editing recognizeable inputs and systematic responses. Rather than worrying about how the system will respond to input, authors, or botmasters, can focus on creating what they system will say. To gain respect as a botmaster/author, one cannot merely modify an out-of-the-box ALICE. The user should further customize or build from the ground up using AIML, artificial intelligence markup language, the site-specific language created for Wallace’s system. They must change the way the system operates–largely, because the critical attention around chatbots follows more the model of scientific innovation more than literary depth. However, according to Wallace, despite the critics’ emphasis on innovations, the users have been flocking to ALICE, as tens of thousands of users have created chatbots using the system (Be Your Own Botmaster). AIML becomes an important test case because while users may access some elements of the system, because they are not changing fundamentals, they can only make limited forays into the scientific/innovation chatbot discussions. Thus while our n-tier model stresses the importance of creating authorware and understanding information systems, novelty still holds an important role in the development of electronic literature. Nonetheless, interactors can at least use their pre-existing literacies when they encounter an AIML bot or a work of interactive fiction written on a familiar platform. LITERATRONICA Literatronic is yet another example of an n-tier system. Its design was based entirely in the concept of division between presentation, process and data layers. Every interaction of the readers is stored in a centralized database, and influences the subsequent response of the system to each reader’s interactions. The presentation layer employs web pages on which the reader can access multiple books by multiple authors in multiple languages.  The process layer is rather complex, since it uses a specialized artificial intelligence engine to adapt the book to each reader, based upon his/her interaction, i.e. and adaptive system. The data layer is a relational database that stores not only the narrative, but also reader’s interaction. Since there is a clear distinction between presentation, data and process, Literatronica is a 3-tier system that allows authors of multiple language to focus on the business of literary creation. MEZ’S CODE: THE SYSTEMS THAT DO NOT USE A COMPUTER[1] As with many systematic critical approaches, the place where n-tier is most fruitful is the where it produces or reveals contradictions. While some works of electronic literature lend themselves to clear divisions between parts of the information system, many works in electronic literature complicate that very distinction as articulated in such essays as Rita Raley’s code.surface||code.depth, in which she traces out codeworks that challenge distinctions between presentation and processing layers. In the works of Mez (Maryanne Breeze), she creates works written in what N. Katherine Hayles has called a creole of computer and human languages. Mez, and other codework authors, display the data layer on the presentation layer. One critical response is to point out that as an information system, the presentation layer are the lines of code and the rest of the system is whatever medium is displaying her poem. However, such an approach missed the very complexity of Mez’s work. Indeed, Mez’s work is often traditional static text that puts users in the role of the processor. The n-tier model illuminates her sleight of hand. trEm[d]o[lls]r_ [by Mez] doll_tre[ru]mor[s] = var=’msg’ val=’YourPleading’/> † TREMOR Consider her short codework â€Å"trEm[d]o[lls]r_† published on her site and on the Critical Code Studies blog. It is a program that seems to describe (or self-define) the birth pangs of a new world. The work, written in what appears to be XML, cannot function by itself. It appears to assign a value to a variable named â€Å"doll_tre[ru]mor[s]†, a Mez-ian (Mezozoic?) portmenteau of doll_tremors and rumors. This particular rumor beign defined is called, the fifth world, which calls up images of the Native American belief in a the perfected world coming to replace our current fourth world. This belief appears most readily in the Hopi tribe of North America. A child of this fifth world are â€Å"fractures,† or put another way, the tremor of the coming world brings with it fractures. The first, post 2 inscription, contains polymers: a user set to â€Å"YourDollUserName,† a â€Å"3rdperson† set to â€Å"Your3rdPerson,† a location set to â€Å"YourSoddenSelf†, and a â€Å"spikey† set to â€Å"YourSpiKeySelf.† The user then becomes a molecule name within the fracture, a component of the fracture. These references to dolls and 3rd person seem to evoke the world of avatars. In virtual worlds, users have dolls. If the first fracture is located in the avatar of the person, in their avatar, the second centers on communication from this person or user. Here the user is defined with â€Å"YourPolyannaUserName,† and we are in the world of overreaching optimism, in the face of a â€Å"msg† or message of â€Å"YourPleading† and a â€Å"lastword.† Combining these two fractures we have a sodden and spikey self pleading and uttering a last word presumably before the coming rupture into the fifth world. As with many codeworks, the presentation layer appears to be the data and logic layer. However, there is clearly another logic layer that makes these words appear on whatever inerface the reader is using. Thus, the presentation layer is a deception, a challenge to the very division of layers, a revelation that hides. At the same time, we are compelled to execute the presneted code by tracing out its logic. We must take the place of the compiler with the understanding that the coding structures are also  meant to launch or allusive subroutines, that part of our brain that is constantly listening for echoes and whispers To produce that reading, we have had to execute that poem, at least step through it, acting as the processor. In the process of writing poetic works as data, she has swapped our traditional position vis-a-vis n-tier systems. Where traditional poetry establishes idenitity through I’s, Mez has us identify with a system ready to process the user who is not ready for the fifth world, whatever that may bring. At the same time, universal or even mythical realities have been systematized or simulated. There is another layer of data that is missing, supplied by the user presumably. The poem leaves its tremors in a state of potential, waiting to operate in the context of a larger system and waiting for a user to supply the names, pleading, and lastwords. The codework means nothing to the computer. This is not to make some sort of Searlean intervention about the inability of computers to comprehend but to point out that Mez’s code is not valid XML. Of course, Mez is not writing for computer validation but instead relies on the less systematic processing of humans who rely on a far less rigorously specified language structure. Tremors fracture even the process of assigning some signified to these doll_tre[ru]mor[s]. Mez’s poem plays upon the layers of n-tier, exposing them and inverting them. Through the close-reading tools of Critical Code Studies, we can get to her inference and innuendo. However, we should not miss the central irony of the work, the data that is hidden, the notable lack of processing performed by this piece. Mez has hailed us into the system, and our compliance, begins the tremors that brings about this fifth world even as it lies in potential. N-tier is not the fifth world of interpretation. However, it is a tremor of recognition that literacy in information systems offers a critical awareness crucial in these emerging forms of literature. FUTURE PROJECTS Two new projects give the sense of the electronic literature to come. The authors of this paper have been collaborating to create systems that answer Hayles’ call at â€Å"The Future of Electronic Literature† in Maryland to create works that move beyond the desktop. The â€Å"Global Poetic System† and â€Å"The LA Flood Project† combine GPS, literary texts, and civic spaces to create art objects that rely on a complex relationship between various pieces of software and hardware, from mobile phones to PBX telephony to satellite technology. To fully discuss such works with the same approaches we apply to video games or Flash-based literary works is to miss this intricate interaction. However, n-tier provides a scalable framework for discussing the complex networking of systems to produce an artistic experience through software and hardware. These projects explore four types of interfaces (mobile phones, PDAs, desktop clients, and web applications) and three ways of reading (literary adaptative texts, literary classic texts, texts constructed from the interaction of the community). The central piece that glues together literary information is geolocation. When the interactor in the world is one of the input systems, critics need a framework that can handle complexity. Because of the heterogeneity of platforms in which these systems run, there are multiple presentation layers (e.g. phone, laptop, etc.), multiple parallel processing layers, and multiple sources of information (e.g. weather, traffic, literary content, user routes, etc.), thus requiring a n-tier approach for analysis and implementation. It is clear that as electronic literature becomes more complex, knowledge of the n-tier dilineations will be crucial not only to the reception but also the production of such works. Since the interaction of heterogenous systems is the state of our world, an n-tier approach will up critics to open up these works in ways that help identify patterns and systems in our lives. DISCUSSION Let us bring down the great walls of neologisms. Let us pause for reflection  in the race for newer new media. Let us collaborate on the n-tiers of information systems to create robust writing forms and the possibility of a extending the audiences that are literate in these systems. In this paper, we have described an analytical framework that is useful to divide works of electronic literature into their forming elements, in such a way that is coherent with advances in computer science and information technology, and at the same time using a language that could be easily adopted by the electronic literature community. This framework places creators, technicians, and critics on common ground. This field does not have a unified method to analyze creative works; this void is a result, perhaps, in the conviction that works of electronic literature require an element of newness and a reinvention of paradigms with every new piece. Critics are always looking for innovation. However, the unrestrained celebration of the new or novel has lead New Media to the aesthetic equivalent of an arms race. In this article we found common elements to all these pieces, bridging the gap between computer science and electronic literature with the hopes of encouraging the production of sustainable new forms, be they â€Å"stand alone† or composed of a conglomeration of media forms, software, and users. As works of electronic literature continue to become more complex, bringing together more heterogeneous digital forms, the n-tier model will prove scalable and nuanced to help describe each layer of the work without forcing it into a pre-set positions for the sake of theory. We have to ask at this point: how does this framework handle exceptions and increasing complexity? It is interesting to consider how the proposed n-tier model might be adapted to cope with dynamic data, which seems to be the most complex case. Current literary works tend to process a fixed set of data, generated by the author; it is the mode of traversing what changes. Several software solutions may be used to solve the issue of how this traversal is left in the hands of the user or mediated yet in some way by the author through the presentation system. The n-tier model provides a way of identifying three basic ingredients: the data to be traversed, the logic for deciding how to  traverse them, and the presentation which conveys to the user the selected portions at the selected moments. In this way, such systems give the impression that the reader is shaping the literary work by his/her actions. Yet this, in the simple configuration, is just an illusion. In following the labyrinth set out by the author, readers may feel that their journey through it is always being built anew. But the labyrinth itself is already fixed. Consider what would happen when these systems leave computer screens and move into the world of mobile devices and ubiquitous art as Hayles predicted they would at the 2007 ELO conference. How could the system cope with changing data, with a labyrinth that rebuilds itself differently each time based on the path of the user? In this endeavor, we would be shifting an increasing responsibility into the machine which is running the work. The data need not be modified by the system itself. A simple initial approach might be to allow a subset of the data to be drawn from the real environment outside the literary work. This would introduce a measure of uncertainty into the set of possible situations that the user and the system will be faced with. And it would force the author to consider a much wider range of alternative situations and/or means of solving them. Interesting initiatives along these lines might be found in the various systems that combine literary material with real-world information by using, for example, mobile hand-held devices, provided with means of geolocation and networking. With respect to the n-tier model, the changes introduced in the data layer would force additional changes in the other layers. The process layer would grow in complexity to acquire the ability to react to the different possible changes in the data layer. It could be possible for the process layer to absorb all the required changes, while retaining a version of the presentation layer similar to the one used when dealing with static data. However, this may put a heavy load on the process layer, which may result in a slightly clumsy presentation. The clumsiness would be perceived by the reader as a slight imbalance between the dynamic content being presented and the static means used for presenting it. The breaking point would be reached when readers become aware that the material they are receiving is being presented inadequately, and it is apparent that there might have been better  ways of presenting it. In these cases, a more complex presentation layer is also required. In all cases, to enable the computer to deal with the new type of situations would require the programmer to encode some means of appreciating the material that is being handled, and some means of automatically converting it into a adequate format for communicating it to the user. In these task, current research into knowledge representation, natural language understanding, and natural language generation may provide very interesting tools. But, again, these tools would exist in processing layers, and would be dependent on data layers, so the n-tier model would still apply. The n-tier information system approach remains valid even in the most marginal cases. It promises to provide a unified framework of analysis for the field of electronic literature. Looking at electronic literature as an information system may signal another shift in disciplinary emphasis, one from a kind of high-theory humanities criticism towards something more like Human Computer Interface scholarship, which is, by its nature, highly pragmatic. Perhaps a better way would be to try bring these two approaches closer together and to encourage dialogue between usability scientists and the agents of interpretation and meaning. Until this shift happens, the future of â€Å"new† media may be a developmental 404 error page. REFERENCES AA.VV. â€Å"New Media Poetry and Poetics Special† _Leonardo Almanac_, 14:5, September 2006. URL:  «http://www.leoalmanac.org/journal/vol_14/lea_v14_n05-06/index.asp » First accessed on 12/2006. AARSETH , Espen J. _Cybertext: Perspectives on Ergodic Literature_. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD, 1997. CALVI, Licia.†Ã¢â‚¬ËœLector in rebus’: The role of the reader and the characteristics of hyperreading†. 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GUTIERREZ, Juan B. â€Å"Literatrà ³nica: Hipertexto Literario Adaptativo.† in _Proceedings of the 2o Congreso del Observatorio para la Cibersociedad_. Barcelona, Spain. URL:  «http://www.cibersociedad.net/congres2004/index_f.html » First accessed on 11/2004. GUTIERREZ, Juan B. â€Å"Literatronic: Use of Hamiltonian cycles to produce adaptivity in literary hypertext†. In _Proceedings of The Bridges Conference: Mathematical Connections in Art, Music, and Science_, pages 215-222. Institute of Education, University of London, August 2006. HAYLES, N. Katherine. â€Å"Deeper into the Machine: The Future of Electronic Literature.† _Culture Machine_. Vol 5. 2003.  «http://svr91.edns1.com/~culturem/index.php/cm/article/viewArticle/245/241 » First accessed 09/2004. — â€Å"Storytelling in the Digital Age: Narrative and Data.† Digital Narratives conference. UCLA. 7 April 2005. HILLNER, Matthias.†Ã¢â‚¬ËœVirtual Typography’: Time Perception in Relation to Digital Communication.† New Media Poetry and Poetics Special Issue, _Leonardo Electronic Almanac_ Vol 14, No. 5 – 6 (2006).  «http://leoalmanac.org/journal/vol_14/lea_v14_n05-06/mengberg.asp » First accessed 25 Sep. 2006 JACOBSON I, BOOCH G, RUMBAUGH J. _The unified software development process_. Addison-Wesley Longman Publishing Co., Inc. Boston, MA, USA, 1999. LANDOW George P. _Hypertext 2.0_. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD, 1997. MANOVICH, Lev. _The Language of New Media_. MIT, Cambridge, MA, 2002. MARINO, Mark. â€Å"Critical Code Studies.† _Electronic Book Review_, December 2006.  «http://www.electronicbookreview.com/thread/electropoetics/codology » First Accessed 12/2006. MEZ.†trEm[d]o[lls]r_† _Critical Code Studies_. April 2008.  «http://criticalcodestudies.com/wordpress/2008/04/28/_tremdollsr_/ » First accessed 04/2008. 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Camera shots english Essay

A camera shot is the amount of space that is seen in one shot or frame. Camera shots are used to demonstrate different aspects of a film’s setting, characters and themes. As a result, camera shots are very important in shaping meaning in a film. Reviewing the examples on the right hand side of this page should make the different camera shots clearer. An extreme long shot (animation on right) contains a large amount of landscape. It is often used at the beginning of a scene or a film to establish general location(setting). This is also known as an establishing shot. A long shot (animation on right) contains landscape but gives the viewer a more specific idea of setting. A long shot may show the viewers the building where the action will take place. A full shot (animation on right) contains a complete view of the characters. From this shot, viewers can take in the costumes of characters and may also help to demonstrate the relationships between characters. For more information on costumes and acting refer to Chapter 4. A mid shot (animation on right) contains the characters or a character from the waist up. From this shot, viewers can see the characters’ faces more clearly as well as their interaction with other characters. This is also known as a social shot A close-up (animation on right) contains just one character’s face. This enables viewers to understand the actor’s emotions and also allows them to feel empathy for the character. This is also known as a personal shot. An extreme close-up (animation on right) contains one part of a character’s faceor other object. This technique is quite common in horror films, particularly the example above. This type of shot creates an intense mood and provides interaction between the audience and the viewer. When analysing a film you should always think about the different camera shots and why they are being used. The next time that you are at the cinema or watching television see what camera shots are being used. Important: These camera shots are used in all forms of visual texts including postcards, posters and print advertisements. Camera angles It is important that you do not confuse camera angles and camera shots. Camera shots are used to demonstrate different aspects of setting, themes and characters. Camera angles are used to position the viewer so that they can understand the relationships between the characters. These are very important for shaping meaning in film as well as in other visual texts. The following examples will help you to understand the differences between the different camera angles A bird’s eye angle (animation on right) is an angle that looks directly down upon a scene. This angle is often used as an establishing angle, along with an extreme long shot, to establish setting. A high angle (animation on right) is a camera angle that looks down upon a subject. A character shot with a high angle will look vulnerable or small. These angles are often used to demonstrate to the audience a perspective of a particular character. The example above demonstrates to us the perspective or point of view of a vampire. As a viewer we can understand that the vampire feels powerful. An eye-level angle (animation on right) puts the audience on an equal footing with the character/s. This is the most commonly used angle in most films as it allows the viewers to feel comfortable with the characters. A low angle (animation on right) is a camera angle that looks up at a character. This is the opposite of a high angle and makes a character look more powerful. This can make the audience feel vulnerable and small by looking up at the character. This can help the responder feel empathy if they are viewing the frame from another character’s point of view. As with camera shots, you will be able to see many examples of camera angles in any film or visual text that you view. The next time that you watch television or see a film, take note of the camera angles and think of how they affect your perception (idea) of different characters. Another camera angle that you might come across is a Dutch angle. A Dutch angle (animation on right) is used to demonstrate the confusion of a character. The example above should disorientate you. Camera movement Composers of films also use camera movement to shape meaning. The following are some examples of common camera movements and how they can be used to shape meaning in films. A crane shot (animation on right) is often used by composers of films to signify the end of a film or scene. The effect is achieved by the camera being put on a crane that can move upwards A tracking shot and a dolly shot (animation on right) have the same effect. A tracking shot moves on tracks and a dolly shot is mounted on a trolley to achieve the effect in the example above. This camera movement is used in a number of ways but is most commonly used to explore a room such as a restaurant. By using a tracking shot or a dolly shot the composer of a film gives the viewer a detailed tour of a situation. It can also be used to follow a character. Panning (animation on right) is used to give the viewer a panoramic view of a set or setting. This can be used to establish a scene Others An Evangelion shot (animation on right) is derived from the popular anime series ‘Neon Genesis Evangelion’. This camera movement begins as an extreme close-up and zooms out abruptly, creating a blurring effect to emphasise the speed and size of the object Lighting Lighting is a very important aspect for shaping meaning in films. What kind of atmosphere is created in a room lit by candles? Have you ever heard of mood lighting? A room that is brightly lit by neon lights might seem to be sterile or a shadowy room might be eerie or scary. The lighting technicians in a film crew have the task of creating lighting to suit the mood and atmosphere of each scene in a film. Consider the animations Lighting example one, Lighting example two, Lighting example three and think about what type of atmosphere is created in each. For each example, do you think the lighting suits the characters in the frames? For instance, in Example Three the two people are very happy and the scene is lit brightly. What would be the effect on the atmosphere if the lighting were dark and shadowy, similar to Example Two? Remember that lighting is used in still image visual texts as well as in films. Cinematography Cinematography is the combination of the techniques described in this chapter. This includes camera shots, camera angles, camera movement and lighting. Use the term cinematography to group all of these together, for example, ‘The cinematography in that film was exceptional. ‘ Mise en Scene Mise en scene refers to all the objects and characters in a particular frame. More specifically, it refers to the composition of the frame. When you use the term mise en scene, you are discussing where the composer or director has placed all the elements of the scene within the frame.